Public Relations Theory and Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Public Relations Theory and Practice - Essay Example Since the study of organizations is to a large extend theoretical in nature, it is inevitable that we consider the nature and function of theory. Public relations as an example of a theory play a key role in establishing how individuals in an organization communicate and relate to one another (Middleton, Kent & Chamberlin, Bill. 1994p.36). Public relations can be learnt in the context of real-world happenings for example through analysis of events that are happening and discussing them. It can also be learnt through consideration of stories that have been successful and also discussion of unethical practices. Leaning of public relations helps one to develop very good interpersonal relations and hence be able to grow very well in careers such as information and management. Press secretaries, communication specialists and information officers are the specialists of public relations of the government (Middleton, Kent & Chamberlin, Bill. 1994P.205). Their work is to provide the government with the information about the activities of its agencies as well as officials. For example a specialist in the public affairs or a specialist in communication seeks to provide information to the public on travel advisories. Public relations theory and practice has a process which involves four steps and it has a very critical role in ensuring that mass media messages are produced in plenty. Research is a very important tool in an attempt to know the programmes and as well as actions of public relations (Pinsdorf, Marion, 1986P.76). One must know the ethical, moral and legal considerations of public relations as well as understanding the opinions that the public has, bearing in mind the difference between persuasion and propaganda. The British perceive this practice of the EU of having few children due to use of family planning methods negatively over the age of 50s. In Britain, there is a coordinated and a more centralized way of implementing progressive retirements, something which the British over 50s have a negative attitude to. In the EU decentralized and sectoral agreements are used to implement progressive retirements, something which the British over 50s perceive negatively. Britain is very strong economically and has much job opportunities, as opposed to EU. Therefore, it has a negative attitude to enhancement of public relations since this means that the EU institutions will be benefiting from its' resources. Britain is very stable economically as opposed to the EU and EU institutions and hence promoting public relations among the British over 50s and the Europeans will mean that the British will be out-sourcing its' fund to the Europeans and the European institutions. This makes the British over 50s to have a negative attitude over the development of public relations between them and the Europeans. In addition, Britain enjoys a very strong defense system which the British over 50s don't like it to be shared with other countries and institutions outside for example the European and the European institutions. This is also a reason as to why the British over

Haitian revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Haitian revolution - Essay Example This meant more slave labor among the Africans who made up the majority of the population. Later, in 1971, the mixed-race group planned a huge revolution demanding for their civil rights, whereas, the whites divided into royalists building tension between these groups. The violent revolution was aimed at achieving racial equality, slavery end, and nation’s independence. I agree with the fact that the Haitian revolution was far more revolutionary than the American because despite horrible human, financial and social expenditures, the Haitian revolution was successful in instilling the concepts of democracy and equality far beyond the levels achieved by the American Revolution. In addition, the Haitians were focused in eliminating slavery as one of their political objectives. This was achieved because it later became an independent country with same racial rights and no slavery, whereas, the United States of America only had a representative administration, where only the minori ty male population were allowed to vote and slavery was still practiced. Although the Haitian economy, social and political status faced destruction, it finally achieved its political

Qualitative Social Research Essay Example for Free

Qualitative Social Research Essay Sociological researcher, Steven Taylor, in his articles discusses the moral and ethical issues researchers must grapple with when they are carrying out studies of abusive behavior in institutions that have weak and disadvantaged people in our society. He cites his own 1 year work experience in a state institution for the mentally retarded to highlight his concerns. He describes it as being in deplorable physical condition and grossly understaffed. The attendants had little training and there were no therapy programs. They controlled the inmates through verbal and physical abuse directly to them and forcing them to clean up their own mess, including feces and urine. They also pitted some inmates against others, such as giving and withholding favors of coffee, food and drugs. Further they forced them to perform humiliating acts such as swallowing lit cigarettes and performing fellatio on each other. Mr. Taylor felt that in order to gain the trust of the attendants and thereby get more valid observations, he had to develop a rapport with them. He did so by drinking beer with them and socializing in other ways. He also played the naive student role and refrained from being critical about their methods. Nevertheless, he was troubled by the abusive behavior he witnessed, but in a quandary as to what to do about it. The attendants, for their part, rationalized their behavior by saying â€Å"the inmates don’t hurt like we do† and treating their actions as entertainment. Personally, I suspect they really didn’t know how to properly treat the inmates and were desperate to try anything that seemed to control them at least in the short run. The author then posed the question as to what the researcher should do in the face of this ethical dilemma during his study. He considered 4 alternatives ; 1)intervene. , for example to as attendant to stop or threaten to inform his supervisor. The problem with this approach is that it would spell an end to rapport with the attendants and thereby hinder the researcher’s ability to collect data on daily activities. 2) leave field. But research is needed to learn why people abuse. 3) blow the whistle. This would obviously shatter rapport and violate the confidentiality provisions of the ASA Code of Ethics. 4 continue study- which is what Mr. Taylor did. Obviously he felt that although this might not appear to be a good option it was the â€Å"least bad† to him. The author then suggests 4 ways to deal with immoral acts; 1 participation in abuses. He contends this is never justified, and that research goals can be accomplished without making human subjects suffer. Furthermore it is I clear violation of the ASA Code of Ethics. 2 ) observation of abuse. This may be the price to pay for conducting field research in immoral situations, but a person can never sit idly by in extreme cases like murder and rape. 3 inadvertently contribute to abuse because of reactive effects . It is clear that often this can’t be controlled by the researcher and therefore can’t be resolved by a professional code of ethics. However the researcher can refrain from encouraging it, for example pretending not to hear an invitation to join in such behavior. 4) doing something about abuse after study, that is, by publishing it and trying to get political action especially through mass media such as TV and newspapers. Finally Taylor concludes the researcher should 1) debate moral and ethical issues before embarking on a particular study and 2) make his own assessment about how to resolve professional ethics and personal morality. Reference Taylor, Steven J. â€Å"Observing Abuse. Professional Ethics and Personal Morality in Field Research†

Researching The Computer Forensics Investigation Plan

Researching The Computer Forensics Investigation Plan The purpose of this paper is to review the basic methodologies and the appropriate processes that a computer forensic investigator goes through in conducting an investigation. It will give an idea to the reader about the planning and organization of an investigator who is involved in a computer related crime, the ways in which he will conduct the investigation such as basic preparation, use of the required tools and techniques, acquisition and analysis of the data, role in giving testimony, use of forensic laboratories or the guidance of all the staff working under the main investigator and even planning network forensics all of which are related to his work. The Computer Forensics Investigation Plan A computer forensic investigates data that can be retrieved form storage media of a computer such as a hard disk, it is also considered that to be a successful computer forensic the knowledge of many different platforms to perform computing is a must, for our case we will consider you as the chief forensic investigator in the state of Virginia, as a part of private enterprise you are assigned the role of planning the computer investigation of a suspected criminal activity, we will see from your perspective how you should conduct all the necessary procedures. We dont just need science; we need good science (Evans, 2004) Always analyze major issues in preparing for an investigation. The crime scene is considered to be a very sensitive place in terms of collecting proofs and evidences which are in many cases very vulnerable and can be very easily be manipulated so special attention is needed in every aspect of recovery methods in order to gain as much as possible. Before arriving at the scene of crime, it is mandatory that you should always take a systematic approach in problem solving like making an initial assessment about the case then determining a preliminary approach to the case, after that, create a detailed checklist of the objectivity of the case, analyze the resources needed, identify all the risks and try the very best to minimize them, also outline all the details known about the case until then in a systematic manner such as the situation in which you will be arriving, the nature and specifics of the case, the type of computer forensic tools which will be needed at the case and to check on the specific operating systems in disposal which assist in the forensics investigation process. Once at the crime scene, try to gather evidence to prove that the suspect violated the company policy or committed a crime, since this is a private sector investigation it includes corporate businesses, other agencies of government are not involved such as law enforcement. The law enforcement agencies act according to the federal freedom of information act or laws of similar descent according to their territory in all process. Investigating and taking control of the computer incident scene in the corporate environment is considered to be much easier than in the criminal environment because the incident scene is often the workplace, these workplaces have databases of computer hardware and software which can also be analyzed, proper tools can be adopted to analyze a policy violation if any. Many companies either state their policy right away or show some warning, some apply both whose purpose is to tell that they hold the complete right to inspect the computing assets of their respective subjects at will, in addition to that every company must describe when an investigation can be initiated and allow the corporate investigators to know that under what circumstances they can examine the computer of an employee, if the investigator finds about the wrongdoing of the employee then the company can file a criminal complaint against him. If any evidence is discovered of a crime during the investigation then the management must be informed of the incident, checking the incident itself that it meets the elements of criminal law, work with the corporate attorney and also to see that you dont violate any other constitutional law in all the procedure. Preparing for a computer seizure for search operation is one of the most important point in conducting computing investigation. In order to do this, some answers from the victim and an informant may be needed, informant can be a detective for the case, a witness, a manager or any coworker to the specific person of interest. If you can identify the computing system, then estimate things such as how many computer systems to process and size of drive on the computer of the suspect, also determine which operating systems and hardware are involved. Determining location of the evidence and the cases type is very crucial, it allows to determine if computers can be removed. If the removal of the computers will cause harm to the company then it should not be done in the interest of the company, problems in investigation may arise if the files are most probably hidden, encrypted or stored in some offsite, if the computers are not allowed to be taken for investigation then the investigator must determine the resources to acquire digital evidence and the proper tools which will be needed to make data acquisition faster. Also determine who is in charge of the respective systems (in corporate environment, usually one persons assistance from the company is required in this regard). Always keep some specialists who work on many different types of operating systems, servers or databases and properly educate those specialists in investigative techniques. Once arrived, securing the crime scene or the specific computer is the foremost priority of the investigation team, the purpose is to preserve the evidence and keep the acquired information confidential. The investigative team should define a secure perimeter using a special type of yellow barrier tape, it should also have the legal authority to keep the unnecessary people out but do not fail to comply the other law enforcers or obstruct justice in any manner possible. Only professional task force should handle the crime scene for evidence as any non professional law enforcer can manipulate or even destroy the vital piece of evidence which may be very crucial in the overall scenario. Remember that corporate investigators does not seize evidence very often, more brief guidelines for processing an incident or crime scene goes as follows, keeping a journal to document the activities, securing the scene in the sense of being professional and courteous with onlookers, removing all those personnel who are not associated with investigation, taking all the proper and necessary recordings in video of the area surrounding the computer, at the same time paying attention to all the major and minor details. Sketching the incident of the crime scene and checking the computers as soon as possible. While at the crime scene, dont ever cut the electrical power to a running system by pulling the plug unless it is an older Windows or DOS system (which in these days are very rarely found anywhere), instead apply a live acquisition by the proper acquisition methods if possible, when shutting down computers with Operating Systems such as Windows XP or later version of it or Linux/Unix then always remember to perform a normal shutdown of the system, this helps to prevent log files. Try the very best to save the data from the current applications as much safe as possible, properly record all active windows or other shell sessions, and photograph the scene. Also make notes of everything that is done even when copying the data from a live computer of a suspect, save open files to external storage medium such as a hard drive or on a network share (if somehow the saving mentioned is causing problems then save with some new titles), then close applications and shut down the computer. Further guidelines include on bagging and tagging the evidence which is done as follows, first assign a person to collect (and log) the evidence, then tag all the evidence which is collected with the present date/time, serial number or other features. Always keep two separate and different logs of evidence collected an keep control of the evidence at the crime scene. Always look for information related to the investigation such as passwords, PINs, passphrases, bank accounts and so on. Look at papers in places such as the drawers or even try to search the garbage can. Collect all the related documents and media which is associated with investigation such as manuals or software/hardware. Using a technical advisor of high degree experience and knowledge is a must, technical advisor can help to list the tools which are required to make progress at the crime scene, it is the person which can guide the investigation team about where to locate data and help the team in extracting the log records or other evidence form large servers. The advisor can also create or help to make a search warrant by finding what is needed by the investigators for the warrant. More brief responsibilities of the technical advisor includes to know the aspects of the seized systems, to direct the main investigator on handling sensitive material, helping in securing the crime scene, helping to plan the strategy for search and seizure (documenting it), document all the activities and helping in conducting the search and seizure. Documenting all the evidence in the lab is also a necessary process, which involves in recording the activities and findings as the investigators work; this can be done by maintaining a journal to record the steps taken as the investigator process evidence. The main objective is to produce the same results when the main investigator or any other repeat the steps that were taken to collect evidence, a journal serves as reference that documents all the methods that have been used to process evidence. For proper documenting the evidence, always create and use an evidence custody form, which serves the following functions such as identify who has handled the evidence and identify the evidence itself, properly listing all time and date of the handling of the evidence. Other information can also be added to the form such as specific section listing and hash values, try to include any other detailed information that might need for reference. Evidence forms or labels are present in the evidence bags that can be used to document the evidence. Forensic Tools Always prepare the tools using information from incidents and crime scenes, the initial response field kit should be light in weight and easy to transport form one place to another. An addition to the initial kit is the extensive response field kit which must include all the necessary tools. The items in an initial response field kit may include one digital camera or 35mm camera with film and flash, one flashlight, one laptop computer, one large capacity drive, one IDE ribbon cable (ATA-33 or ATA-100), one SATA cable, one forensic boot media containing the preferred utility, one FireWire or USB dual wire protect external bay, ten evidence log forms, one notebook or dictation recorder, ten computer evidence bags (antistatic bags), twenty evidence labels, twenty tape and tags, one permanent ink marker, ten external USB devices such as a thumb drive or a larger portable hard drive.(cited in Nelson, Phillips Stewart , 2004) Tools in an extensive response field kit may include varieties of technical manuals ranging from operating systems references to forensic analysis guides, one initial response field kit, one portable PC with SCSI card for DLT tape drive or suspects SCSI drive, two electrical power strips, one additional hand tools including bolt cutters, pry bar and hacksaw, one pair of leather gloves and disposable latex gloves (assorted sizes), one hand truck and luggage cart, ten large garbage bags and large cardboard boxes with packaging tape, one rubber bands of assorted sizes, one magnifying glass, one ream of print paper, one small brush of cleaning dust fro suspects interior CPU cabinet, ten USB thumb drives of varying sizes, two external hard drives (200 GB or larger) with power cables, assorted converter cables and five additional assorted hard drives for data acquisition. When choosing an appropriate tool, the investigator must be sure that the tool is properly functioning, and that the right person handles it during the investigation. In order to prepare the investigators team, investigator must review all the facts, plans and objectives with the entire team assembled, the main objectives of the scene processing should be to collect evidence and secure it. The speed of the response from the team is very crucial as it can cause evidence such as digital evidence to be lost. Laboratory A computer forensics lab is a place where computer forensics conduct investigation, store evidence and house the necessary equipment, hardware and software. A typical lab manager duties involve many tasks such as proper management for case study, helping to provide reasonable consensus for effective decisions, keep everyone up to date with proper ethics and any modifications if made, keeping a financial account and proper check and balance of the entire facility, keeping it updated according to latest trends in technology and promoting the required quality assurance, appoint a schedule that suits everyone, estimating the potential of investigators and assessing their requirements, proper estimation of results ( preliminary or final) or when they are expected, strictly manage all lab policies and keep an overall look on the safety and security of the entire facility. The staff members have duties which include knowledge and training of equipments relating to computer systems such as O perating systems and their file types, software and hardware. Other staff duties include knowledge and training of technical skills, investigative skills, deductive reasoning. Planning lab budget involves making proper divisions in costs on all bases from daily to annual expenses, gathering the available data of the past expenses and use it to predict or prepare for any future costs. The main expense for a lab comes from the trained personnel or the equipment they use such as hardware or software devices in their disposal. Always estimate the number of computer cases the lab expects to cover, always being notified about the advancements in technology in the respective field, try to make assessment about the computer related crimes ( their kinds), and use this information to plan ahead lab requirements and costs. While making good computer technology available is important, the costs and benefits of upgrading all computers to state of the art must be weighed. (cited in schwabe, 2001) Check statistics from the Uniform Crime Report, identify the specific software used to commit crimes. If youre setting a lab for any private corporation, remember to check the inventory of computing such as software or hardware, previous reported problems and the ongoing and future advancements in related computer technology. Managing time is also a major concern when choosing on the computing equipment for the purchase. Most of the investigation is conducted in the lab, so it should be secure as evidence may is very crucial and cannot afforded to be lost, manipulated, damaged, destroyed or corrupted. Always put emphasis in providing a secure and safe environment, keep proper inventory control of the assets (inform in advance if more supplies are needed). A safe and secure facility should always preserve the evidence data and keep it as it is, the minimum requirements for a secure facility are a medium or small sized room with true walls form the floor to ceiling, proper locking mech anism provided with the door access, secure container and log for visitors. Almost all of the workers in the facility should be given the same level of access. Always brief the staff about the security policy, it is a must. The evidence lockers used in the lab must be kept secure enough such that any unauthorized person may not access it at all, some recommendations for securing storage containers include locating the containers in a properly defined restricted area, limiting people who will have the access to the storage containers, keeping a record on the authority of everyone who has access to the containers and keeping the containers locked when not in use. If a combination of locking system is used, then provide equal measure of security for both the contents of the container and the combination, always destroy the combinations that were previously held when setting up new combinations, only those persons who have the proper authority should be allowed to change the lock combinations, try to change the combination every three or six months or whenever required. When using a key padlock, authorize a personnel as the main key custodian, keep duplicate keys and print sequential numbers on all of them, keep a registry which has a record of keys that are assigned to the authorized personnel, conduct audits on weekly or monthly basis, try to place keys in a secure container after taking an inventory of keys, keep the level of security the same for all the keys and evidence containers, replace the old locks and keys on an annual basis and dont use a master key for several locks. Containers should be strong, safe and as much indestructible as possible with external padlock system and a cabinet inside, try to get a media safe if possible (to protect evidence form damage), keep an evidence storage room (if possible) in lab and keep a well organized evidence log which is used to keep update on all the occasions when the container of the evidence is opened or closed. Always maintain a security policy and enforce it (log signing in for visitors in a way that those personnel are considered to be visitors who are not assigned to lab, these visitors should always be escorted in all times), using indicators (visible and/or audible) is also a necessity inside lab premises, install an intrusion alarm system and hire a guard force for your lab. In civil litigation, investigator may return the evidence after using it (when issued a discovery order),if the investigator cannot retain the evidence then make sure it make the correct type of copy( copy in cases of data from disks or other hard drives, logical or bit stream), ask the supervisor or your client attorney on the requirements, you should usually only have one chance, create a duplicate copy of the evidence file, make minimum two images of evidence(digital) using separate methods, try to copy the host protected part of a disk, size is the biggest concern ( such as in raid redundant array of independent disks) systems which have terabytes of data), Some investigation needs to be conducted in the laboratory because of the proper tools and technicians available there who know how to deal with the evidence correctly without tampering it, Investigator might need to have the proper permission of the authority in charge if it wants the system moved to the laboratory, when permission provided, the investigator have a given time frame in which it must perform its task and then deliver the system back to where it came from. Log files Log files are those which lists all the actions that have happened, such as in Web servers which maintain log files to list every request made to the main Web server, using the log file analysis tools, the user can gave a very good assessment of where the visitors came from or how often they return or even how they go through a site, in addition to log files there are cookies, when used, they enable the Webmasters to log far more detailed information about the user on how it is accessing a site. Logs are also considered to be an independent, machine-generated record of what happened within a network for both system and user activity. When set up properly, and with the appropriate due care, logs can provide an immutable fingerprint of system and user activity. In many cases, the logs tell a story as to what really happened in an incident. They can tell you what systems were involved; how the systems and people behaved; what information was accessed; who accessed it; and precisely when these activities took place. (Cited in Musthaler, 2010) Given the overview of logs on what they can provide, the regulations such as the PCI DSS (payment card industry DSS), the FRCP (civil procedures federal rules), the HIPAA (which is an act regarding the health insurance) and many other regulations, all consider logs and log management to be the very basic and essential necessity for proper and efficient data management. Logs can be used to capture many vital sources of information which beside protecting the core data can also help in supporting forensic analysis and incident response if a data breach has occurred or other forms of electronic crime, such as fraud. The overall log monitoring can be hurdled because of the extremely large amount of fair data capture and the unwillingness, lack of will or errors in properly managing, analyze and correlating that data. The overall conclusion (in mismanagement) can cost hugely as if some suspicious activity or breach really happens, then a lot of time ( possibly many months ) may require to detect the fault, there is even no guarantee if the fault will be detected. In order to have logs admissible in court as evidence of a crime, an organization must prepare and execute due care with the log data. Log data must be viewed and treated like a primary evidence source. Here are some best practices that can help ensure log data and log management practices properly support forensic investigations. Have a clear corporate policy for managing logs across the entire organization. Document what is being logged and why, as well as how the log data is captured, stored and analyzed. Ensure that 100% of log-able devices and applications are captured and the data is unfiltered. Have centralized storage and retention of all logs, with everything in one place and in one format. Ensure the time synchronization of logs to facilitate correlating the data and retrieving data over specific timeframes. Ensure the separation of duties over logs and log management systems to protect from potential internal threats such as a super user or administrator turning off or modifying logs to conceal illicit activity. Always maintain backup copies of logs. Have a defined retention policy that specifies the rete ntion period across the organization for all log data. Organizations should work with legal counsel to determine the best time frames and have log data incorporated into an overall data retention policy. Have a defined procedure to follow after an incident. Test the incident response plan, including the retrieval of backup log data from offsite storage. (Musthaler, 2010) Further quotes form Brian Musthaler include, If an incident or data breach is suspected, there are several steps to take right away: Increase the logging capability to the maximum and consider adding a network sniffer to capture additional detail from network traffic. In an incident, its better to have more data rather than less. Freeze the rotation or destruction of existing logs to prevent the loss of potential evidence. Get backup copies of the logs and make sure they are secure. Deploy a qualified investigations team to determine the situation. (Musthaler, 2010) With the appropriate care, logs can provide solid forensic evidence when and if it is needed, as far as the job of a computer forensic investigator is concerned, his log begins when he starts an investigation, logs can be made of many things such as events, system security, firewall, audit, access and so on. (cited in PFI, 2010) Equipment can be recorded in the log by many ways, audio logs can be made which can store audio files, picture logs can be made which can store digital pictures taken during an investigation. Equipments are recorded according to the type of its contents with the appropriate tools. The final log is stored at the very end after possibly remodifying or revising previous logs. Data acquisition For the process of acquiring data in an investigation, we will consider following techniques, There are two types of data acquisition, static acquisition and live acquisition which basically involves the following four type of acquisition techniques, bit-stream disk-to-disk, bit-stream disk-to-image file, sparse and Logical. Bit-stream disk-to-image file is the most common method, it makes many copies and all of the copies made are replications of the original drive bit-by bit, similar type of process is happening in everyday scenario concerning a common personal computer, when we copy and paste files from one place to another or when we make multiple copies of a data file then the exact copy of the original data file is made available in many places. It is very simple, easy and with very nominal training can be performed on the target system therefore it is the most preferred method as well. The tools used in it are EnCase, ProDiscoer, FTK, SMART. Disk-to-disk method (bit-stream) is applied in the case of disk-to-image copy being impossible mainly due to hardware or software errors or incompatibilities, this problem comes when at most of the time dealing with very old drives. It adjusts target disks geometry to match the drive of the suspect (geometry of track configuration), tools used in this form are SafeBack, EnCase, , and Snap Copy. Logical acquisition and Sparse acquisition are used when the total time of the investigator is very short and the target disk is very large. This type of acquisition only searches and retrieves the selected file which is of particular interest, comparing this to Sparse acquisition which deals with data collection but again the data collected is very nominal. Data analysis Data analysis(for a computer forensic investigator) includes mostly examining digital evidence which depends on the following main factors, the nature of the case, the amount of data to process, the search warrants and court orders and the company policies. Scope creep happens when investigation expands beyond the original description which should be avoided in all cases. Few basic principles apply to about the entire computer forensics cases such as the approach taken depends largely on the specific type of case being investigated. Basic steps for all computer forensics investigations for analysis include the following points such as for target drives, using only recently wiped media that have been reformatted and inspected for computer viruses, noting the condition of the computer when seized, removing the original drive from the computer to check date and time values in the systems CMOS, record how to acquire data from the suspects drive, process the data methodically and logically, listing all folders and files on the image or drive Also try to examine the contents of all data files in all folders starting at the root directory of the volume partition, try to recover all the file contents that are password-protected and can be related to the investigation, identifying the function of every executable file that does not match known hash values and maintain control of all evidence and findings and also document everything as being progressed through the examination. Refining and modifying the investigation plan includes determining the scope of the investigation and what the case requires, determining if all the information should be collected and what to do in case of scope creep. The main aim should be to start with a plan but remain flexible in the face of new evidence. Data can be analyzed using many tools from the forensic toolkit such as supported file systems (FAT12/16/32, NTFS, Ext2fs, and Ext3fs). FTK can a very powerful tool that can analyze data from several sources including image files from other vendors, it produces a case long file. FTK also analyzes compressed files, reports can also be generated in it using bookmarks. Other analyze tools include searching for keywords (indexed search, live search or using advanced searching techniques such as stemming). In order to identify different types of data such as images, email and so on, the investigator should examine the data format and then according to that format, it should deal with the file with the appropriate tool. Working with law enforcement The status of individuals under law is no longer in doubt: individuals are subjects of law and as such are accorded rights. Yet rights are illusory without the procedural capability to enforce them. They are no more than high-minded principles if individuals whose rights have been violated have no avenue for complaint and relief. (Cited in Pasqualucci, 2003) There are basically two types of computer investigations, public and private(corporate), the public investigations involve government agencies responsible for criminal investigation and prosecution, the organizations involved must observe legal guidelines provided to them by the authority, other legal rights such as law of search and seizure helps in protecting rights of all people including suspects. Of the everyday problems of the criminal justice system itself, certainly the most delicate and probably the most difficult concern the proper ways of dealing individually with individuals.(Cited in Winslow, 1968) Investigator working with the law enforcement must always abide by the federal and constitutional laws in conducting and performing entire process of investigation. Criminal cases at law enforcement goes through three main steps, first the victim (any individual or company) will contact the law enforcement agency by making a complaint, then acting on behalf of that complaint, the investigator will be assigned by the government authority to conduct a balanced and proper investigation and will be asked to present all the findings directly to the law agency, the investigator will interview the complaint and will write a report about the crime, police blotter may provide a record of clues to crimes that have been committed previously (related to the ongoing investigation). The investigator collect, delegate and process the information related to the complaint. As the investigator build a case, the information is turned over to the prosecutor. An affidavit is a sworn statement of support of facts about evidence of a crime which is submitted to a judge to request a search warrant; the judge must approve and sign a search warrant before it can be used to collect evidence. The chain of custody is the route the evidence takes from the time investigator finds it until the case is closed or goes to court, throughout the case, the evidence is confiscated by the investigator who has the proper right under the law to maintain and keep the evidence immutable. Other concerns which need to be addressed when bringing law enforcement to the scene is that the officers should follow proper procedure when acquiring the evidence such as in digital evidence which can be easily altered by an overeager investigator, special concerns should be given to the information on storage media such as hard disks which are password protected. Network forensics Network forensics is the job of finding the information about how a perpetrator or an attacker gained access to a network, it involves systematic tracking of incoming and outgoing traffic to find out how an attack was carried out or how an event occurred on a network, the forensic expert should be very well experienced and be familiar with many previously related cases of network because the intruders which the network forensic searches for always leave some sort of trail behind, this trail

Software Maintenance Essay -- essays research papers

SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE Abstract A consequence of the widespread utilisation of computer based technology over the past few decades has been the emergence of vast, highly complex computer systems whose content and structure are increasingly resistant to modification and change.   However fallible such legacy systems remain, many are â€Å"mission-critical† whereby their failure may lead to the collapse of the business or industry in which they serve.   In such cases, it is ultimately not possible to decommission the system in question.   The present report investigates the nature of such systems and examines why legacy systems cause problems to Software Maintenance Managers?   This report also provides a brief overview as to how such problems can be minimised and controlled. Keywords: Legacy systems, legacy system migration, mission critical systems, re-engineering, software wrapping, software evolution. 1. Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚   The literature describes legacy systems in terms of being an existing software application that is predominately within the maintenance phase of its lifecycle.   Such systems are typically old and heavily modified from their original designs by years of maintenance, usually by many different people [Moor00].   Although legacy systems are technically obsolete, having been written in assembly or early third generation languages such as COBAL Fortran and Coral, they generally represent considerable investment, and maintain significant value to their users [Benn95] [Brod95].   Ã‚  Ã‚   Legacy systems typically form the backbone of information flow within an organisation, and as such, are essential for the function of its business. Failure in these systems is likely to have serious consequences hence why legacy software is often considered of a â€Å"mission critical nature† [Benn95] [Bisb99]. As can be expected, systems of this nature pose a number of problems to the users, and to the Software Maintenance Manager responsible for the upkeep of the system.   Such problems range from the cost of maintenance to the utilisation of obsolete skills and technologies.   However, several solutions have been proposed and documented in the literature in response to, and to minimise, these problems.   Generally, they are classified under four categories: maintenance, re-development, wrapping and migration [Bisb99] [Lee97].   Ã‚  Ã‚   Therefore, the remainder of this report is ... ...[Lien80] B.P. Lientz & B.E. Swanson, "Software Maintenance Management", Addison - Wesley, 1980 [Merl95] E. Merlo, P-Y. Gagne, J.K. Girard, K Kontagiannis & P. Panangaden, "Re-Engineering User Interfaces" IEEE Software Jan 1995, Vol 12 No 1 [Moor00] M.M. Moore, "Using MORPH", http://www.cis.gsu.edu/~mmoore/MORPH/dissertation/approach.html, 2000 [Nose90] J.T. Nosek, & P. Prashant "Software Maintenance Management: The Change in the Last 10 Years", Journal of Software Maintenance, 1999, Vol 2 No 3 [Press01] R.S. Pressnam, "Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach" McGraw Hill, 2001 [Somm01] Sommerville, "Software Engineering", Addison - Wesley, 2001. [Weid97] N. Weiderman, L. Northrop, D.Smith, S.Tilley & K. Wallnau, "Implications of Distributed Object Technology for Re-engineering", Technical Report CMU/SEI-97-TR-005, Carnegie Mellon University, June 1997

How Justified Were President Lincoln’s Wartime Decisions? Essay

How Justified Were President Lincoln’s Wartime Decisions? In a time of war, it is necessary for the President to enforce limits on the power of individuals. President Lincoln was entirely justified in limiting rights during the wartime situation to protect the nation. It was also necessary for him to increase the size of the federal army in order for the North to have any possibility of winning the war. Lincoln had to do all that he could to keep the Border States, each of which the Union could not afford to lose. Setting limits on the rights of individuals was unavoidable for President Lincoln, because Copperheads posed a significant threat to the Union. It is almost certain that the North would have lost the war if Lincoln did not improve the Union’s army. The South had superior military trained personnel because most of the U.S. military that had been professionally trained seceded with the South. A number of notable military institutions were located in the South. The North only had a small â€Å"standing army† before the war. Congress was not in session at the time of crisis, so Lincoln himself requested 75, 000 men, most of which had never even held a gun. This large army needed training and supplies. Had Lincoln waited for the $2 million needed for military services to be appropriated, it may have been too late to successfully train such a large army. It was crucial that the Union did not lose any of the Border States. Martial Law had to be ordered in ...

Genetic Engineering in Food Production Essay

Genetic Engineering in Food Production: Is it Safe, Wise, and Moral? Over the past couple of decades, the genetic engineering has been found and is regarded as the improvement of advanced technology in the field of biology. Ever since the first gene was cloned in 1973, genetic engineers have been pursuing at break-neck speed the unlimited possibilities promised by biotechnology . Their excitement, which has generated billions of investment dollars for the industry, is understandable. Bioengineering allows scientists to identify specific gene sequences responsible for particular characteristics and then to transfer the genes — and the specific trait — into entirely different species. One of the more current and controversial issue in the field of biotechnology is the use of bioengineering in food production. Scientists are experimenting with many different plants, but the genetic engineering of the tomato, dubbed Flavr Savr has been the most highly publicized project by far. The new tomato is supposed to boast more red and be tastier due to its longer staying time on the vine, thereby giving it more time to accumulate sweetness; yet, it will not rot or spoil because of its new genetic makeup. (Davidson 1993). With this advanced technology scientists argue that it could offer the greatest hope in the aid to stop hunger in Third World countries. This new technology could be used to make bulk levels of food production more efficient and less costly. However, despite all of its advantages in creating better crops, many people are very skeptical about its safe and possible long-term health effects. Moreover, the social issue lies deep in the realm of ethical and moral concerns. Do people really want to eat meat that is leaner and tastier but contains genes from humans? Or, would individuals (like vegetarians) be able to eat certain vegetables that may contain genes from animals? Personally, I would not support the use of genetic engineering in food production based on moral and ethical reasons: I do not think that scientists should be able to use their knowledge and social prestige in society to be able to play the role of God in creating new or better living things even if their justification is for the purpose of serving mankind. Although we still have much to learn about genes, recently developed techniques have already given rise to a new technology of molecular genetics. Genetic engineering, also known as gene splicing/manipulation and recombinant DNA technology is a set of techniques for reconstructing, or deliberately manipulating, the genetic material of an organism. Operating at the molecular level, this process involves the addition, deletion, or reorganization of pieces of an organism’s DNA (known as genes) in order to alter that organism’s protein production (Arms et al. 1994). The use and applications of genetic engineering range from medical and pharmaceutical to industrial crops and food products. Its applications, today or in the future, include†¦creating improved strains of crops and farm animals (Arms et al. 1994). All of these applications rely on the ability to transplant genes into a cell’s makeup, or genome. The new gene may come from another organism, of the same species, or it may contain DNA produced in the laboratory. One example, the new Flavr Savr tomato, developed by Calgene, a biotechnology company based in Davis, California, was subjected to years of scrutiny before the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) agreed that it was safe to eat. They found, copied, and rebuilt a gene that lets these tomatoes stay on the vine without softening and spoiling. That means that the fruit can develop more of the sugars and acids that make a home-grown tomato taste so sweet and rich. Conventional tomatoes sold in the stores are often hard and flavorless because they are picked while green and firm enough to transport, then ‘ripened’ by spraying with ethylene (Wood 1995). This turns the tomato red but does nothing to develop a riper flavor. Ethylene, a colorless, odorless gas that once kicks in, so do all the problems of perishability (Wood 1995). Since tomatoes have a softening gene, it produces RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) to help manufacture a protein that causes rotting. To stop the tomatoes going soft too soon, the researchers devised a way to block production of the enzyme polygalacturonase, which breaks down cell walls and eventually causes the fruit to rot (Miller 1994). The Calgene scientists inserted a mirror image of the softening gene that produces a reverse copy of the RNA. This reverse RNA blocks the action of the regular RNA and helps to preserve the fruit. All in all, Calgene seems to have produced a good but hardly outstanding tomato using antisense technology, given all the propaganda and advertisements. A couple of the reasons for why the tomato failed were because: (a) the manipulation of the ripening gene had unintended consequences (soft skin, weird taste, compositional changes); and (b) the high price — they tried selling it at first for$2. 99 a pound (as expensive as organic tomatoes), then later dropped the price to $2. 49, then $1. 99, then . 99. Furthermore, the general public does not seem persuaded or have caught up with this trend yet. For one, people are greatly concerned about the safety of the product since the FDA does not insist that genetically engineered foods carry a special label, even though the FDA assured consumers that they can be confident in knowing that foods produced by genetic engineering are as safe as food in our grocery stores today, stated FDA Commissioner David A. Kessler, MD (Miller 1994). However, critics have cited a case in which at least 31 people died and 1500 contracted a fatal blood disease after ingesting a genetically engineered batch of L-trytophan, a dietary supplement (Davidson 1993). Without proper labeling it will be impossible for consumers to exercise their right to choose what kind of foods they eat. Another issue among consumers and environmental activist groups is that of moral and ethical concerns. Many people feel that scientists might have gone too far in terms of experimentation. We have now come to the end of the familiar pathway of leaving everything to the creation of Mother Nature. With the rise of advanced technology in genetics, scientists now possess the ability to manipulate genes, and redirect the course of evolution. They can reassemble old genes and devise new ones. They can plan, and with computer simulation, anticipate the future forms and paths of life. Hence, the old ways of evolution will be dwarfed by the role of purposeful human intelligence. However, just as nature stumbled upon life billions of years ago and began the process of evolution, so too would the new creators of life find that living organisms all have a destiny of their own. To evaluate the validity of the benefits of this technology, we need to answer three simple questions: Is it safe, is it wise, is it moral? Sinsheimer 1987). To answer the first question about whether it is safe, if the technological developments are kept open to public knowledge and scrutiny, I think in the short term it could be. This way the general public can monitor the hazards of any new product introduced into the biosphere, and can probably cope with any immediate problems or consequences. In answering the second question of whether it is wise, I would say that it is not. Through decades of research, scientists have learned of the different pathogens that prey on humans, animals, and major crops. But I believe that their knowledge is still very limited in trying to understand what led to these organisms’ existence and modes of adaptation. Thus scientists cannot really predict whether all their new discoveries and creations might somehow lead to a new and unexpected group of harmful species since potential organisms that could be converted by one or more mutations be transformed from harmless bugs to serious risks. Finally, to answer the question of the advantages of genetic engineering in terms of morality and ethics, I can only say that the more we create, the more problems we will have in the long run in trying to solve them. Life has evolved on this planet into a delicately balanced and fragile network of selfsustaining interactions and equilibrium. If we try to change or replace the creatures and vegetation of this earth with human-designed forms to conform to human will, I believe we will forget our origins and inadvertently collapse the ecological system in which we were found. Moreover, do we really want to assume the full responsibility for the structure and make-up of our world? I think that we seriously need to intervene between the scientists and engineers to consider a solution that will help slow down all of these experiments so that we could step back and look at what we are doing. If not, I think that these practicing scientists and researchers should be more broadly educated in our humanistic values and traditions. They need to understand the implications of what they are doing in order to be able to balance the concerns of the natural environment and that of society’s humanistic needs; to bear in mind that technology exists only to serve and not create. Human beings, are of course, sprung from the same DNA and built of the same molecules as all other livings things. But if we begin to regard ourselves as just another group of subjects to test our experiments on by altering or tampering with the foods we eat, just like another crop to be engineered or another breed to be perfected, we will surely lose our awe of humanity and undermine all sense of human dignity.